| TRADING The Plains Indians have a long tradition of trading, both with each other and with white people. When the Plains Indians first came into contact with white traders and settlers, they soon figured out that the traders' metal axes, kettles, and guns could make their lives easier, and just like any other people they liked to have new clothes and jewelry. Horses are the most valuable items that Plains Indians have to offer for trade. One warhorse is worth ten saddle horses, and one racing horse is worth ten guns. A saddle horse is usually worth one gun with one hundred rounds of ammunition or eight buffalo robes. A single buffalo robe can be swapped for three metal knives or twenty-five rounds of ammunition, but a person who wants a gun needs to give the trader eight or ten buffalo robes. If the buffalo robe is finely decorated, it may be worth as much as three packhorses. Warriors also offer the traders wolf and beaver fur and pemmican, which is a specific type of food made from dried meat mixed with dried berries and covered in melted fat. Pemmican is very useful to people who live on the plains because it can be kept for a long time. White traders also offer the Plains Indians seashells and beads for making jewelry, and shell-and-bone hair pipes, such as those shown on the breastplate above. These popular accessories are manufactured thousands of miles away by white workers in New Jersey. The Plains Indians also trade dried buffalo meat, dried vegetables, clothing, and regalia. Trade goods are imported from all over the world: glass beads from Italy, bright red paint from China, guns and cloth from Britain, and seashells from the Pacific coast and Russia. White traders like this man travel from village to village. Others set up permanent shops called trading posts. During the nineteenth century, more and more of these were established, especially by the fur companies, who came to rely heavily on the Indian trappers and hunters. Men and women soon learned how to spot poorly made goods and how to get a good deal. The traders sometimes are allowed to marry a woman from their village. This often happens—the life of a trader who travels by himself is lonely, and marriage to a Plains Indian woman can help to create friendly relations with his customers. HUNTING Since the Plains tribes had generally abandoned the static farming life in favor of roaming the Plains in search of game, hunting naturally formed a vital part of their lives. Even the village tribes such as the Ponca and Mandan, who subsisted mainly on their own crops, relied on the buffalo to provide meat in the summer months. Although the true nomads supplemented their diet with vegetables and berries, the bulk of their food came from hunting a wide variety of animals. Game such as the antelope and deer provided varied meat and skins; the beaver and weasel were sought for their prized fur: and birds were killed for their feathers. Unquestionably, though, the staff of life for the Plains Indian was the buffalo, which was regarded as constant proof of the benevolence of the Sacred Powers. They were not only plentiful, roaming the Plains in herds of millions stretching over many miles, but also provided the Indians with more than just food. The tribes ingeniously and gratefully made use of every part of the buffalo (see accompanying diagram to the extent that it supplied an incredible proportion of their basic needs, providing clothing, tools, shelter, fuel and food. As the life-sustaining force, and patron of such virtues as strength and fertility, the revered buffalo was a central feature of religion. Mediums such as buffalo skulls, curiously shaped "buffalo stones', and names derived from the animal such as Sitting Bull) all invoked its sacred power. Ritual also surrounded the hunting of the buffalo, with songs, dances and ceremonies assuring the successful renewal of the herds each year. One simple practice was to leave the hearts of butchered animals on the plain after a hunt, in the belief that they would replenish the herd with new life. Other ceremonies, such as the Mandan Bull Dance, symbolised the procreation of each year's calves. Those shamans who possessed medicine derived from visions of the buffalo would be responsible for ensuring that their patron animals approached the camp. They would use their power, along with special regalia such as buffalo hoof rattles or skulls, to call the large herds to the area at times when their return was anticipated or when food was scarce. Supernatural power also extended to the actual killing of the buffalo, the appropriate shamans undergoing rituals to ensure the success of a hunt. Various techniques were used to hunt buffalo, depending upon the time of year, and evolving with the use of the horse. Individuals or small groups sought buffalo when the hunting regulations permitted. Their prey always had to be approached from downwind, since buffalo have an acute sense of smell to compensate for their poor vision and hearing. Disguises such as wolf-skins enabled a pedestrian hunter to approach very close to a herd. The bow and arrow's silence explained its general preference over firearms, since the herd were not necessarily alarmed immediately a shot was loosed. By hunting in small groups, the hunters were also able to head off the buffaloes' retreat. In the deep snows of winter hunters on foot, sometimes using snowshoes, could drive buffalo into drifts or on to ice where their weight of up to 2,000 lbs rendered them helpless. This particular technique survived the coming of the horse, while the speed of a mounted hunter over relatively snow-free ground led to the adaption of the other individual methods of hunting. The only way to secure a large amount of meat was through a co-operative effort. The communal drive or 'piskin' was the oldest form of group hunting, and employed all the able members of a band. The principle was to lure or drive a herd towards a corral or precipice by mimicking a calf, by enticing the leading animals, by using medicine or by sending runners behind the buffalo. The members of the band would form a long "V. hiding themselves behind rocks or makeshift fences converging on the enclosure or escarpment. As the buffalo passed them these people leapt from hiding and began waving and screaming, spooking the herd and causing them to stampede, hopefully towards the trap. As each one leapt out the path available to the buffalo narrowed, until they realized the danger. As the leading buffalo strained to stop, they would be driven into the stockade or hurled over the cliff by the momentum of the blindly charging bulk of the herd, who would themselves have no time to stop. The stockade's entrance was usually a sharp drop or an iced-over slope, preventing the buffalo from escaping the waiting hunters, while those driven over an escarpment would be killed or crippled by the fall. The piskin was an ingenious method of compensating for the Indians' lack of mobility in pre-horse days, and could provide a huge amount of meat in return for a brief, if arduous and hazardous effort. It was unreliable, however, since the buffalo might simply never approach the area (particularly if the smell of a previous slaughter still lingered), or might suddenly veer away from the trap. It was a way of using group co-operation, and the meat was divided amongst the whole band; but its deficiencies led to the decline of the communal drive once horses became available, and only tribes poor in horses, such as the Plains Cree and Assiniboin, continued to rely on it. Most tribes evolved methods which used more fully the skills of mounted hunters, and were therefore more popular and indeed more successful. The 'surround', which also stemmed from pre-horse days, became much easier with the advent of the horse. The principle, whether on foot or horseback, was to approach the buffalo in two lines or an arc, and then to converge on them by joining up into a wide circle and tightening it like a noose. The rather stupid animals became confused, and the leading buffalo would turn away from the screaming hunters and either run in circles or charge back into the centre of the herd, goring each other. The milling mass could be picked off with arrows and lances: and although the buffalo would frequently kill or injure some of the hunters, the crowding caused by the "surround' reduced their battering-ram power, and made possible the slaughter of a large number of animals. While the 'surround" was much more practicable and efficient on horseback, it was not feasible in certain terrain, and still failed to make the best use of the horse. The 'chase employed the Plains riders' excep¬tional skills to the full. It was a straight mounted rush by the hunters from downwind of the buffalo, who would turn and flee when they realized the danger, spreading out as they ran. The cows were followed by the bulls, with the calves bringing up the rear. Unlike the "surround", the chase made full use of the mobility of a rider, since he was free to select each individual quarry, closing on and evading the galloping buffalo as he judged best and as his skill allowed. Once a herd had been located, the hunters approached as near as possible without disturbing the buffalo: then mounted their "buffalo-runners', leaving common mounts with the women and children. Buffalo-runners were agile, swift and courageous horses, highly prized by their riders, and trained specifically for riding close in to the buffalo without flinching, guided only by the pressure of their rider's knees. A man's ability in the chase was only as good as his buffalo-runner, and he used this horse for nothing else. The mounted hunters lined up equidistant from the herd, allowing all an equal opportunity, preventing individuals from scattering the herd prematurely, and ensuring the largest possible kill. At a signal the hunters charged, the superior buffalo-runners running down the cows if they were prime. As a hunter closed on his chosen target his mount brought him to the right rear flank of the buffalo in the case of a right-handed bowman, or to the left if he was a lancer. When he was as close as possible the rider released his already-noched arrow, aiming behind the last rib of the buffalo to hit the vitals and shooting with great force, since a weak or misplaced arrow would not stop its powerful target. While some hunters employed the lance, firearms were not very effective before repeating rifles were introduced, since only these could compete with the rapid discharge accom¬plished by the bowman. At the sound of the bow string, the buffalo-runner would veer away from the buffalo to evade its horns. The horse then kept pace if, as was quite common, further shots were required to complete the kill. Then the hunter would select another buffalo, repeating the process until his horse tired and the remnants of the herd outdistanced him. On average a competent man could kill two buffalo, only the supreme hunters boasting four or five of the choicest beasts. A further advantage of using the bow was that every hunter could identify his own arrows, and claim the meat that he had killed. So, while the hunt was still a communal one, it promoted individual achievement and appealed to the Indian's competitive nature, both between hunters and in the deadly contest between man and beast. Both men and women took part in butchering, depending upon the tribe. Animals were heavily butchered when practical and necessary, and the bulk of the meat taken back to the camp on packhorses. Raw meat was also eagerly devoured on the spot; raw liver, for example, was sometimes eaten still hot and dripping blood. The chase naturally had its dangers, both in the possibility of a horse stumbling, and of a buffalo turning and hooking with its horns. With the increasing reliance on the horse, however, many tribes favoured this method of hunting, since it ensured that the better the combined skills of mount and rider, the greater the chance of escaping injury. The size of a band, the distance it had to travel and its hunting methods were dictated by the availability, movement and quality of the buffalo's meat and coat. Accordingly, the life of the nomadic Indians varied with the four seasons. During autumn, from about August to Novem¬ber, the tribes were dispersed into their individual bands. A band moved camp when lack of game drove them on, until their designated winter village site was reached. Individual hunting provided fresh meat throughout autumn, and around October communal hunts—usually drives until the later days—were employed to build up winter reserves from the fattened buffalo. Until the bad weather set in, the camp spent the late autumn in preparing dried meat and in obtaining and dressing hides, originally for their own lodges and clothes but in later days to supply the white traders. During the winter months the bands sought shelter from the bitter, open Plains, and established static camps far enough apart not to deprive each other of game. Camp was only moved if a band faced starvation or needed fresh pasture, and then only if the move could be completed by nightfall. The severe weather and scarcity of buffalo, likewise dispersed into small groups seeking shelter, re¬stricted hunting considerably. Individuals and small groups sought buffalo when the weather allowed, to supplement the dried meat supplies which were so vital when conditions confined the Indians to their lodges. The village sites were often situated near communal drives, in hope of obtaining not only precious meat, but also the shaggy winter coats of the buffalo—ideal for robes, which were in great demand until the white man's trading season ended in about April. When better weather heralded the arrival of spring, the bands eagerly followed the buffalo back out on to the open Plains. The richer grass ensured a plentiful supply of meat, which was generally hunted on a family basis. Communal hunts were organised when opportune; as the bands moved with the buffalo herds, so their paths crossed, so that two or three might unite in one large camp. The only time the entire tribe or sub-tribe gathered, other than for tribal defense, was during the summer months. The bands drifted together until they were united in one spectacular camp circle; in its purest form this had the bands camped in a fixed order, as among the Cheyenne (see diagram). The summer camp was a time for reunions, affirmation of tribal unity, important councils and religious ceremonies. While the whole tribe was together the selected warrior societies would enforce the hunt regu¬lations, forbidding anyone to chase game outside of the communal hunts, since individuals might alert the larger herds. These regulations were very important, for although the buffalo were plentiful the tribal leaders were responsible for feeding many mouths. The tribal hunts in the summer usually took the form of the 'surround' or the chase, and as well as food, the hunt was expected to yield sufficient tongues for the ceremonies of the Sun Dance. After the Sun Dance's conclusion, and often after a final communal hunt, the tribe would once again divide up and begin the journey towards and preparation for their winter camps. THE HORSE Between 1.5 million and 600,000 years ago, the ancestors of modern horses migrated from Asia to the North American continent, traveling across the Bering Land Bridge, which joined the two land masses during this time. However, they became extinct in the New World, and were unknown to the Native peoples until they were reintroduced into Mexico by the Spaniards in the 1500s. As these horses were traded and captured, they began to move northward throughout America, and by the mid-1700s, most of the Plains Indians had them. The arrival of the horse transformed the lives of the Plains Indians, who had previously relied on dogs to carry their belongings as they moved around. Since horses can transport far heavier loads than dogs, the Plains Indians were able to make themselves bigger tipis and keep larger supplies of food. They were also able to travel farther and faster than ever before. Children became used to horses from an early age, and both boys and girls were taught to ride. A rich family might own as many as thirty horses, but only one or two would be good enough to be ridden into battle. For a warrior or a hunter, success depends on owning a fast, well-trained, long-winded, and brave horse. Good horsemanship is also very important. In battle especially, being able to stay on the horse's back means staying alive, while falling—or being dragged—off a horse would mean certain death. The best riders rescue fallen comrades by lifting them onto their galloping horses in the thick of a battle. They protect themselves from bullets and arrows by slipping around to their horses' sides and hanging there. |
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| The Importance of Property, Trading and the Horse |
| (1) BEARD: Ornamentation of clothing & weapons. (2)
TONGUE: Choice meat; also, hair brushes. (3) SKULL: Ceremonies, prayer, Sun Dance; tool for de-hairing rope. (4) BRAINS: Hide preparation. (5) HORNS: Cups, powder horns, spoons, ladles, quill flatteners, fire-carriers, headdresses, signals. (6) MUSCLES & SINEW: Bows (bull), thread, arrowhead and feather binding, cinches. (7) HAIR: Headdresses, saddle pad filling, pillows, rope, tipi ornaments, halters, medicine balls, bridles, weapon ornaments. (8) BONES: Knives, arrowheads, shovels and hoes, splints, sled runners, arrow straighteners, saddle trees, fleshing tools, quirts, awls, paint brushes. (9) TANNED HIDE: Moccasin tops, cradles, winter robes (with hair), bedding (with hair), caps and mittens (with hair), breechclouts, shirts, leggings, dresses, pipe bags, tobacco pouches and berry bags (calf hide), paint hags, quivers, tipi covers and linings, gun and lance covers, dolls, riding gear. (10) BUFFALO CHIPS (dung): Fuel, signals, ceremonies, (11) TAIL: Medicine switch, fly whisk, tipi exterior decoration, whips. (12) RAWHIDE: Containers, clothes, headdresses, parfleche, medicine bags, shields (from bull's hump), buckets, mocassin soles, rattles, drums, drumsticks, snow shoes, cinches, ropes, thongs, riding gear incl. saddles and horse shoes, knife sheaths, bull boats, quirts, belts, glue, halting of clubs, meat and berry pounders, mauls. (13) SCROTUM: Rattles. (14) BLADDER: Sinew pouches, quill pouches, small medicine bags, food bags. (15) PAUNCH: Cooking vessel, water carrier & container. (16) MEAT: Every part eaten. (17) HOOVES: Glue, rattles. |
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