| Most Plains Indian tribes select their leaders. Older men serve as civil chiefs, making decisions about village matters, and younger men are the warrior leaders, deciding when it is right to go to war. Although women's opinions are respected, they are usually voiced by their husbands. The divisions of the Plains Indians were far more complex than simply those between tribes. Each tribe was closely related to a number of others linguistically, from the time before movement on to the Plains began. There were also more distinct tribal divisions, and subsequent ramifications into sub-tribes, hunting bands and clans. The Sioux nation, for example, was initially divided into three separate entities over a period of time: the Dakotas. or Santee Sioux; the Nakotas, or Yankton Sioux: and the Lakotas. While the first two tribes remained on the eastern edge of the Plains, the Lakotas or Teton Sioux migrated west to the central Plains, and became known as the Western Sioux. The Assiniboin tribe were also an off-shoot from the Yankton Sioux, following a later dispute. Although the number fluctuated slightly as divisions disbanded or united, there were strictly seven sub-tribes of the Teton Sioux, this number being considered integral to the nation's structure. These were the Brule, Hunkpapa, Miniconjou. Oglala, Oohenonpah, Sans Arcs and Sihasapa. Even these sub-tribes still contained too many people to be practical units outside the summer months. Just as the summer buffalo herds dispersed into small groups as the grass became less plentiful, so the Plains tribes divided up into compact hunting bands. These were small enough to be mobile and to require only a limited amount of food and grazing, while remaining large enough to defend themselves and to co-operate as a unit, for instance when hunting buffalo. The bands, comprising approxi mately 20 to 30 families in the case of the Black-foot, were identified by nicknames. The Oglala Sioux, for example, were divided at one time into six hunting bands or 'tiyopses': the Oglala, Red Water, Old Skin Necklace, Nightcloud, Red Lodge and Short Hair. The hunting band was the basic working unit for most of the year, until the whole tribe gathered for the summer's hunts and ceremonies. While its size fluctuated to some degree, since members were generally free to move to a more successful band, each unit was comprised mainly of relatives by blood or marriage, a practice which obviously encouraged group unity. This was taken to a greater degree in some tribes by the establishment of clans, whereby affiliation was fixed either patriictally or matrilocally. The exogamous nature of most bands and clans also served to prevent marriage between relatives, a practice of whose dangers the Indians were keenly aware. Harmony within the individual hunting bands and in the tribe as a whole was maintained by a number of 'chiefs'. The tribe was considered to be one large family, the camp circle symbolizing the family tipi and the chiefs were at its head. While the structure of each tribe's authorities was complex, the most general distinction between leaders was that between war chief and civil chief. The civil chiefs were generally senior, older men, concerned with the day to day life of the tribe; while war chiefs—the officers of the warrior societies—were vigorously involved in martial affairs. Roles of authority also extended to groups of respected riders: and to shamans—both in their own right, as far instance when directing the search for buffalo, and as recognized chiefs. The idea of the Plains Indian chiefs as autocrats is mythical. The many leaders of each tribe held roles of varying titular superiority, but all enjoyed only limited authority. Even if one band's chief was recognized as the tribe's head man, his role would amply be to chair the tribal council. The leaders of the hunting bands would act only in an advisory rapacity, so that their authority was only as great as their personal influence. A poor chief would soon lose his position, while the band of a popular leader would prosper and expand. Consequently, to become a chief a man had to display all the virtues expected of a good man. Ideally this meant that anyone could become a chief through leading an exemplary life, although in reality opportunity was sometimes greater for the son of an established leader. Inspired by the prestige of their elders, young men were certainly keen to follow the path to chieftainship, which lay initially through acquiring be status necessary to lead war parties. A recognized warrior could attain advantages in council, both in when he spoke and how much heed was paid to his word. By displaying the other virtues expected of a chief—good sense, honesty, even temper, personal responsibility and unceasing generosity—an aspiring leader set a good example, placed others in his debt, and slowly increased his influence. Since they clearly had to lead by example, the Indians stated that their chiefs were not elected but 'just got that way'. Important tribal matters were discussed and resolved by the council, one of the most advanced of which was the Council of Forty-Four of the Cheyenne. This comprised 40 chiefs drawn from the ten bands and four Old Man Chiefs, and was guided by a set of regulations forbidding, for example, the killing of one Cheyenne by another;. The council, which met in summer to make decisions for the tribe, represented a strict democracy; working closely with the men's societies, and recognizing the wishes of the people, it only made decisions which could be supported by the majority of the tribe. Since a chiefs authority was really only paternal, a good deal of personal responsibility was demanded from each individual. Usually a destructive member of the community was initially reasoned with rather than reprimanded, and there was ample incentive for everyone to make their contribution. Firstly, correct behavior was in¬stilled into youngsters by the example of the proud, honoured chiefs and warriors. Secondly, the survival of the hunting band was dependent on a co¬operative effort, and the obligation was increased by the fact that every member was surrounded by so many close kin. Indeed, the necessity for a band to be able to assign tasks and pool resources promoted the idea that it was good to increase your number of relatives. The convention of treating even quite distant members of the extended family as immediate relatives also fostered unity, and generally ensured that no one was left destitute. The obligation to marry into a different band helped to maintain the various elements of the tribe as a whole. Whether the man or the woman moved to join the band of their in-laws, the bands were drawn together by blood, and the tribal camp in the summer was eagerly awaited as an annual reunion. An individual's behavior was also kept in check in more direct ways, particularly by the importance placed upon public opinion. His standing in relation to his fellow tribal members was central to the Indian's philosophy. Accordingly, while great prestige awaited the virtuous man, ostracism was the punishment of selfishness, cowardice, laziness or dishonesty. The Blackfoot apparently subjected deviants to such public mockery and abuse as to sometimes drive them into exile or on to the war¬path; while the Crow formalized such punishment by the recognition of 'joking relatives', who as well as bantering with each other were also expected to shame one another out of deviations in conduct. If such warnings as these, or those from a headman, went unheeded, the council were empowered to exile a man, or to sanction a warrior society to punish him, for instance by destroying his lodge and possessions. Many tribal gatherings are combinations of social and religious celebrations, with dancing, storytelling, feasting, gift-giving, courting, speeches, and games. Gatherings usually take place in the summer, when it is easier to travel and there is plenty of food for everyone and grass for the horses. Most gatherings last about a week, which is as long as the available grass and fuel last. Pipe smoking plays an important part in spiritual ceremonies. There are specially decorated sacred pipes for this purpose, as well as plain ones for social smoking. In many tribes, it is common for both men and women to smoke a mixture of tobacco and herbs. This combination is thought to represent all the living things in the world, and the pipe is symbolic of the flesh and blood of human beings. The act of smoking brings the elements together. The smoke from the pipe can represent a prayer, a gift, or a request for aid from the Great Spirit. Dancing is a very important part of the Plains Indians' ceremonial, spiritual, and social life. It is thought to renew the earth's spirit, the animals and crops, and maintain the energy and lifeforce of the tribe. Everyone, from the very young to the very old, is expected to dance, and both warrior societies and women's guilds host their own dances. Scalp dances, which can last many days, are held as victory celebrations over enemies. The buffalo dance, which depicts a hunt, is performed by men wearing buffalo head masks. It is danced when meat is scarce, in order to bring the herds closer to the village. During the dance, young men leave the village in search of the herds. |
| Social Life in a Typical Village |