| The Plains Indians believe that everything in the world is part of one Great Spirit and is therefore a potential source of spiritual power. They call this power medicine. Among most tribes there are two sorts of healers; in some cases one person fills both positions. Doctors charge a fee to splint broken bones, apply poultices, prescribe certain herbs, or sew up large wounds. They often make a theatrical display of their treatment in order to convince the patient of their power and to provide entertainment. Holy people, known as medicine men or women, attend to the spiritual needs of others with their special powers, which are believed to have been given to them by the Great Spirit in dreams or visions. Each person has special holy objects such as the quilled medicine pouch, sacred stick, and rattle, which provide inspiration and help to protect from harm. A holy person can tell someone which items to put into his or her medicine bag, or the affected individual may receive guidance in a spiritual vision. A medicine object is not simply special because of its shape or material. It has to be made sacred by being blessed by a holy person or used in a spiritual ceremony. Spiritual power is usually sought in a ritual in which the person seeking aid goes on a vision quest. He leaves the village and fasts and prays for up to four days in the hope of receiving a sign from God, which may come in the form of an animal, bird, rock, or tree, because the Great Spirit can communicate with people in any form at all. These visions are then interpreted by a holy person. Dreams in normal sleep are also considered to be spiritually important and a source of power. A man may paint a symbol or animal that he has seen in a dream onto his shield to protect him in battle. Dead people are dressed in their finest clothes to prepare them for the journey into the next world. Their medicine objects, food, and—if they are male— sometimes their weapons, are wrapped up beside them in a buffalo robe. Most tribes then place the corpse on top of a scaffold that is raised about six feet off the ground. Eventually, the bones are removed and placed in crevices in the rocks. The Plains Indians followed no single religion. Animist religion was an important part of a Great Plains Indians' life, as they believed that all things possessed spirits. Their worship was centered on one main god, in the Sioux language Wakan Tanka (the Great Spirit). The Great Spirit had power over everything that had ever existed, and the Indians believed that by worshiping him they would become stronger. Earth was also quite important, as she was the mother of all spirits. Spirits were worshiped daily. People sometimes prayed alone, while other times there were group gatherings. The most important group ceremony was the Sun Dance, in which participants danced for four days around a sacred object, and some would inflict harm upon themselves on purpose, all while staring at the sun. They believed this self- sacrifice would encourage powerful spirits to support and defend them. There were also people that were wakan, or blessed, who were also called shaman. To become wakan, your prayers must be answered by the Great Spirit, or you must see a sign from him. Wakan were thought to possess great power. One of their jobs was to heal people, which is why they are also sometimes called "medicine men". The shamans were considered so important that they were the ones who decided when the time was right to hunt. Plains Indians believed that some objects possessed spiritual or talismanic power. One such item was the medicine bundle, which was a sack carrying items believed by the owner to be important. Items in the sack might include rocks, feathers, and more. Another object of great spiritual power was the shield. The shield was the most prized possession of any warrior, and he decorated it with many paintings and feathers. The spirits of animals drawn on the shield were thought to protect the owner. The Plains Indians believed that supernatural power pervaded every aspect of their life, and that to live in harmony with it was necessary to survival. This abstract force embraced all the natural mysteries of the Plains, so that not only their world but the very life the Indians led was considered sacred, and consequently their religion was a very real and practical belief. A manifestation of spiritual power was called 'maxpe' by the Crow and 'wakan' by the Sioux, who therefore called a holy man a "Wicasa-Wakan', and their supreme deity "\\akan-Tanka" or the Great Spirit. 'Wakan' power was the source of what came to be known as medicine, so that 'making medicine" simply meant invoking the Sacred Powers. Medicine was sought and held through prayer, sell-induced visions, ritual, and medicine items such as pipes and other bundles. It was so important because it provided for the tribe, and guided warriors and healers. The sacred right to invoke medicine had to be attained and preserved; and the life-sustaining force of the tribe, both in the abstract and in matters of material subsistence such as the buffalo, had to be renewed regularly. The structure of the Indians' deities was complex, often loosely defined, and varied from tribe to tribe. A belief in a dominant force or supreme deity, the original source of medicine and controller of lesser spirits, was widespread. The lack of clarity that surrounded this being lay in the belief that it was both personified as a distinct Great Spirit, while also being seen as a part of everything, an omniscient force. The Cheyenne beliefs typify this, since while they recognized Ma'heo'o as the 'All-Father', their cosmology incorporated a group of subordinate deities emanating from the 'All-Father'. While these had distinct identities they could also be seen collectively as a single entity, 'Ma'heono', the Sacred Powers. Since medicine lay in all things, everything, including these Sacred Powers, was a part of the Great Spirit, whose power divided and sub-divided indefinitely. The sun was generally the most powerful subsidiary power, the bringer of light and life. It was distinct from the Great Spirit, but they were closely integrated, since tribes commonly regarded the sun as a material token of the Great Spirit's existence. While the supreme deity was an abstract, the sun was a visible symbol, and the tipi was always pitched to face east so that prayers of thanks could be offered up to it at the beginning of each day. The moon, sky and Earth were also venerated, as were the stars, the Morning and Evening Stars playing a large part in Pawnee ceremony. The Sacred Powers were commonly divided into two groups, the Cheyenne for instance recognizing the Listeners-Above dominated by the sun, and the Listeners-Below dominated by the Earth. This idea of opposites, be they above and below, good and evil, male and female, was a consistent theme in the Plains religions; the Indians attempted to balance them, engendering power through harmony. There were a number of other recurrent themes which reflected the constancy of religion. Tribal sites of great spiritual importance were common, usually isolated summits or places of natural wonder where medicine was most effectively sought through visions. To the Comanche, Medicine Bluff in the Wichita Mountains was important, while the Cheyenne called Bear Butte the Sacred Mountain, believing it to be the place where the All-Father met with their prophet Sweet Medicine, and the source of medicine on Earth. The sacred circle, as the perfect form and the shape of natural phenomena such as the sun, was represented by the camp circle, the base of the tipi, and the performance of ceremonies in a clockwise, circular direction where possible, reflecting the movement of the sun. It was also divided by the sacred number four into the continuous life-pattern, at the semi-cardinal directions in the case of the Cheyenne. South-east represented renewal, south¬west growth and nourishment, north-west ma¬turity, and north-east completion of, and return along, the unbroken circle to renewal. This explains the importance of renewal in many ceremonies, as well as the emphasis placed on the number four. There were the Sacred Powers of the Four Winds and the Four Directions, and the number was also believed to permeate everything natural. Con¬sequently, crosses were worn to symbolize the Four Directions, and the number figured significantly in ritual, ranging from four objects being used, to three feints being made before a movement was completed. The Vision Quest The Indians believed that to distinguish themselves, and indeed to survive, they needed to acquire medicine from the Sacred Powers through visionary experience. Dreams came to the fortunate in¬voluntarily when they were children, and as they grew up further knowledge revealed the full extent of their blessing. Most, however, had to reach out for power, invoking the aid of the Great Spirit through self-sacrifice. Usually, as a boy approached manhood, he would seek out a shaman to instruct and assist him in his 'vision quest', and together they decided the time and method of the youngster's undertaking. To begin with, the vision-seeker would usually purify himself in a 'sweat lodge', a low dome of willow saplings covered with skins to retain the scorching vapors given off by water poured on to red-hot rocks placed in a central pit. Sage was also burnt or rubbed on the body, and paint applied in sacred designs. The vision quest itself was endured in a place of solitude, allowing the vision-seeker to concentrate fully upon the Sacred Powers. The actual form it took varied, but it usually involved the vision-seeker remaining alone in the same spot for an agreed number of days and nights, perhaps broken up by visits from his supervising shaman. Some would sit in the darkness of a small lodge, some would remain unsheltered, while others stood in one spot staring at the sun to force themselves to stay awake. Sioux vision-seekers paced out a cross from a central pole to poles marking the Four Directions, hung with offerings of tobacco and red flannel strips. The vision-seeker was naked apart from perhaps a breechclout and moccasins, and shunned all earthly protection other than a buffalo robe for warmth at night. Sacred objects such as a buffalo skull, sage, and buffalo chips were used to forge a link with the Sacred Powers, as was a pipe, which carried the prayers of the vision-seeker to the Great Spirit. Food and drink were abstained from for the duration of the quest, so that, with his mind resting inexorably on the Great Spirit, the vision-seeker, weak from hunger and thirst, might achieve a vision. Some attempted to accelerate the effect through self-sacrifice, chopping off a finger joint, for instance, offering up their very flesh to the Great Spirit, as well as weakening themselves through loss of blood and so encouraging a trance. Those who failed to see a portent of their medicine either resigned themselves to failure or prolonged their ordeal. Weak and alone, the successful vision-seekers would either see or hear a sign of their medicine while conscious, or, semi¬conscious, they would drift from fitful sleep into a trance revealing a vivid apparition. Some fainted from lack of food, drink, sleep, or blood, and discovered spiritual help when close to death. The actual visions which men saw were obviously very varied, but as the power of the Great Spirit was believed to be diffused throughout the Indians' natural surroundings, it was in a comprehensible, natural form that medicine was most often revealed, the commonest visions being of birds and animals. Birds could impart the powers which were characteristic of their own abilities, from the arrogant, ferocious skills of the eagle, through the agility of the kingfisher, to the knowledge and acute hearing of the tiny chickadee. Animals provided medicine in the same way, the buffalo, for example, signifying hunting success or abundant food, or imparting its powers of strength and tenacity. Birds and animals, as well as being able to impart abilities to the dreamer in their own right, might also be seen as messengers from the Sacred Powers, the owl, for example, sometimes being seen as a servant of the moon. Thus a vivid dream of an encounter with, or even the distant sound of, a bird or animal might fulfill the vision-seeker's quest, assuring him of a natural medium through which to attain his medicine by providing him with a personal supernatural guardian or 'vision spirit'. Alternatively, the vision-seeker might see himself, displaying his medicine by his actions. He could be wearing special clothing or paint and riding a horse bearing painted symbols, while displaying invulnerability by riding through a hail of bullets, arrows, or even lightning bolts. An animal guardian might also be revealed through some adornment, such as a bear claw necklace: or by a natural power, such as the eagle, saving him from danger. A vision had to be interpreted before it could be fully understood, so the visionary would receive instruction from his tribe's shamans, or from a 'dream cult'. These comprised a small membership who had all seen the same vision spirit, and could share and represent their medicine collectively, while enhancing their prestige. Each cult developed specific ceremony and regalia derived from the appearance and actions of their supernatural patron: thus Bear Cult members mimicked the bear, invoking medicine known to provide guidance in both war and doctoring. The relationship between a visionary and his vision spirit can be seen in the sense of an adoption. The vision spirit would direct its spiritual son in the use of its imbued power, outlining the necessary ritual, paint, song, dress and taboos. An intrinsic idea underlying this was that medicine was a tangible substance which was transferable, from the Sacred Powers to nature, from nature to the Indians, and subsequently from one man to another. The vision spirit was regarded as having offered a part of itself to the visionary, a share in its personal medicine. The rest of the visionary's life was then spent under a spiritual protection and obligation, fulfilling the requirements of his vision. Initially, he secured his relationship with the Sacred Powers by forming his acquired medicine into a palpable object, called a 'medicine bundle'. This could take many forms, from an actual bundle of talismans to charms centered around a pipe; even a medicine shield was a form of 'bundle'. Derivatives from this included necklaces, clothing, feathers, adornments hung from shields, small medicine pouches and even the paint a man wore, all of which, along with appropriate ritual, invoked and retained a man's medicine. Often they worked through association, so that medicine acquired from the eagle might be represented by an eagle skin bundle containing charms outlined in the vision, an eagle feather worn in the hair, a single talon pendant hung around the neck, and a complete claw attached to a painted shield. Subsequent meditation and ritual provided receptive visionaries with medicines from different sources; for instance, Weasel Tail of the Blood Blackfoot possessed a wide variety of medicines, regarding the otter, king-bird, and weasel all as personal helpers, and consequently owning a complex range of bundles. Provision was also made, however, for those men who failed to achieve a vision. Since medicine was transferable, they were able to purchase a share of power from a more fortunate visionary, who would assume the paternal role in the standard adoption. Certain men and women received visions of particular spiritual significance, which portended a future as a shaman. Such visions were usually distinguishable by the fact that rather than simply offering power, they also conferred a degree of understanding. This ranged from the visionary being taught the use of certain herbs in healing, to his being made aware of the sacred nature of the world. The Sioux Black Elk was shown by the Sacred Powers that 'the sacred hoop of my people was one of many hoops that made one circle'; and in such a way was given a comprehension of spiritual matters. The main distinction made between shamans was that between priests and doctors. Doctors were those shamans who used their supernatural power, possibly together with herbal remedies and rites learnt from their elders, to heal. A priest was a spiritual advisor and interpreter. Taught through study under an experienced holy man. and sanctioned by visionary experience, he was responsible for the preservation of tribal lore, relics and ceremony, and for the direction of spiritual affairs. One important role played by the priests was that of ritual keepers of the tribal bundles. These were medicines of tribal, rather than individual signifi¬cance, exemplified by the huge Beaver Bundle of the Blackfoot. This was the largest of all tribal bundles. symbolizing nearly all birds and animals through the numerous skins it contained, as well as being the 'father' of the other Blackfoot bundles, since it also held aspects of each of them. It originated from the Beaver, who taught the first keeper the sacred songs which accompanied the bundle's ceremonies: and since it was very sacred, the keeper's role was equally revered. His spiritual obligations were to memorize the ceremonies and songs; originally over 400 of them) to conduct the rituals and maintain the bundle, to possess the knowledge of the associated medicines, and to live a life in harmony with nature. The Beaver Bundle was opened to offer a general blessing, as part of tribal ceremonies of renewal and to overcome illness and hunger. The keeper also used its potent medicine to predict the weather and guide camp moves, and kept a calendar and recorded the "winter counts' which formed the tribal history. Tribal bundles, like all medicines, could be transferred. This was usually done formally, the keeper's neophyte inheriting the bundle and its obligations following years of study, thus ensuring its continued blessing upon the tribe. The old-time transfer of the Sacred Arrows of the Cheyenne entailed the new keeper—as a sign of his dedication to the Great Spirit or All-Father, and in appeal for His blessing—offering up numerous slices of his own flesh cut in sacred patterns, the scars of which remained for life. The Sun Dance Since their religion was such a constant practice, continuous acknowledgement of the Sacred Powers being important to maintain harmony, various simple forms of worship permeated the Indians' everyday lives. Prayers and offerings were constantly offered up to the Sacred Powers. At their simplest they involved thanksgiving to the sun and the Great Spirit, or the offering of a morsel of food to the Sky and Earth; but they also extended to pledging a sacrifice of possessions, participation in a ceremony, or sacrifice of a man's flesh in exchange for safety or success in war or recovery from illness. The smoke from a pipe carried prayers to the Sky, Mother Earth and the Four Directions, while the sacred number, circle and sunwise direction all provided a constant means of demonstrating awareness of spiritual obligations. The rituals that surrounded sacred objects were consistent with this. The ceremony that surrounded the opening of a medicine bundle, for instance, or the taboos that accompanied the use of medicine items, ensured careful observance of their sanctity. The culmination of these rituals were the tribal ceremonies, the most important of which was the Sun Dance. This was a major tribal ceremony of all of the typical Plains tribes, apart from the Comanche, until 1874. It was held when the whole tribe was camped together—sometimes annually, as among the Blackfoot. and sometimes sporadi¬cally, as with the Crow. Since tribes formed the Sun Dance into a composite of their other ceremonies there were obviously tribal variations, but as it had been diffused from tribe to tribe there were also common features. Primarily, the ceremony allowed the tribe as a whole to supplicate the Sacred Powers, while different tribes also had other distinct motives. To the Crow, it was a means of securing a vision promising revenge; to the Cheyenne, a ceremony of renewal. Underlying these tribal motives was the contractual vow taken by the central 'pledger' to sponsor the ceremony in exchange for divine favour, be it a safe return from war or recovery from illness. Similar vows, either taken for themselves or for relatives, also bound individuals to more minor roles. Women always either assumed the role of central pledger—illustrated by the Sun Dance of the Blackfoot, which centered on a woman's purchase of the valuable Nataos Bundle and sponsorship of the ceremony—or at least played an important part. The sacred number four was recurrent, this number of days often being set aside both for the preparatory ceremonies—illustrated by the 'Lone Tipi' rites of the Cheyenne—and for the main rituals of the Sun Dance. These were initially focused on the construction of the medicine lodge, a large building which housed the concluding ceremonies, situated in the middle of the camp circle and centered on a significant central pole. The finding of a forked cottonwood tree suitable for this task involved a great deal of ritual, since the tree was treated as being symbolic of an enemy. Consequently, a privileged scout would usually be sent out to find it; and following his return to report the successful discovery of an enemy, the cottonwood was ceremonially 'killed' and coup counted on it. Some tribes, such as the Crow, reserved the right to notch the tree, before it was felled, for a virtuous woman. When the central pole had been carried back to camp it was raised at the centre of the lodge. For the Blackfoot this completed the central pledger's role as she ended her fast, the cottonwood proclaiming her virtue if it was raised perfectly upright. The central pole remained steeped in symbolism, particularly the bushy fork at its top, which was seen by some tribes as the nest of the Thunderbird, and was commonly hung with offerings, for instance of tobacco or cloth. The pole was also usually hung with effigies of some form. The Sioux painted it at the Four Directions, and hung up rawhide figures of the Whirlwind and Crazy Buffalo, two evil spirits who were later shot down by the tribe's warriors. The Crow and the Kiowa focused their ceremonies on a doll fixed to the central pole, the Kiowa using their sacred Tai-me doll, while an effigy was also contained in the Blackfoot Nataos Bundle headdress. A great number of ceremonies, usually preceded by fasting and purification rites by the important participants, were held around the central pole. There was dancing by both the men's and women's societies, as well as the recounting of coups by the tribe's warriors. An altar was always prominent, playing a central role in the Cheyenne ceremony as its construction symbolized the renewal of the Earth, and was commonly adorned with the painted skull of a buffalo. This sacred animal was also represented by such aspects of the Sun Dance as the Buffalo Dance, the ritual killing of one or two buffalo, and the very important preparation and solemn consumption of the sacred buffalo tongues. The most spectacular element of the Sun Dance was the self-torture of dancers who had pledged to offer their flesh in supplication of the Sacred Powers. While some men—such as the Blackfoot Weather Dancers, the Crow central pledger, and the Sioux first grade dancers—performed an arduous dance, bobbing up and down on their toes, blowing on an eagle-bone whistle, and staring at the Sun or central pole, others had the flesh of their breasts and backs pierced through by skewers. Some attached these to buffalo skulls, which they dragged until the skewers broke free or they had walked a certain distance. Others were attached to poles and fell back on the skewers, which tore their flesh; while some, such as the highest grade of Sioux dancers, were actually suspended from the central pole by ropes to the skewers through their breasts, until the skewers broke free. The loose skin was cut off and placed at the central pole as a sacrifice to the sun. Clearly, such participants in the Sun Dance made very receptive visionaries, (their attendants sometimes unwittingly planted the skewers so deeply that the dancers could only tear them free if others jumped on them to add their weight.) The achievement of a vision by the central pledger was a necessary condition for the ending of the Crow Sun Dance. The self-torture dancers offered the ultimate sacrifice to the Sacred Powers, and demonstrated unquestioning faith in their religion, while completing the ceremonies, which served to unite the tribe in worship, and to renew their dedication for the year ahead. |
| Medicine, Ceremony and Holy Men of the Tribes |