THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN SOLDIER PLAYED A DECISIVE ROLE
in the US Army on the Western Frontier during the period 1867 through 1891. First authorized by Congress in July 1866, blacks were organized into two cavalry and four infantry regiments, which were commanded by white officers, but whose enlisted personnel were African-American. The mounted regiments were the 9th and 10th Cavalry, and the foot regiments were the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry (later consolidated into 24th and 25th Infantry). All were quickly nicknamed ‘Buffalo Soldiers' by their Cheyenne and Comanche enemies.
Until the early 1890s these troops constituted approximately 20 percent of all forces on active duty in the American West. By 1891, they had pared in approximately 130 actions against hostile Indians in Kansas, Indian Territory, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Dakota territory, as well as in Mexico. Twenty-two members of the various black regiments were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for extreme bravery and courage under fire. Countless others received commendations. Besides their battle record, they performed the task of protecting settlers, travelers and workers alike. They built roads and erected forts, plus thousands of miles of telegraph poles, which brought civilization to the American frontier.
A correspondent of the Army and Navy Journal left one of the best testimonials to the qualities of the buffalo soldiers. On campaign with the 9th Cavalry in New Mexico in 1881, he recalled: 'On the march, or in camp, they are cheerful and obedient. Their horses are well cared for, and in two companies I have seen but one man lounging in his saddle, and he had more white than black blood in his veins; no falling out of ranks, or watering at different times. If ordered on detached or dangerous service, they never shirk it, and will ride hours without sleep, and apparently unfatigued. They do not appear to sleep, and in camp seem to be awake all night. If washed out, as I saw one company, they will change their camp in the middle of the night, laughing and cracking jokes. There is even evidence to show they will and do fight well. Their own as well as other officers and citizens who have fought with them, attest this fact.'
Sources disagree on how the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" began. According to the Buffalo Soldiers National Museum, the name originated with the Cheyenne warriors in 1867, the actual Cheyenne translation being "Wild Buffalo." However, writer Walter Hill documented the account of Colonel Benjamin Grierson, who founded the 10th Cavalry regiment, recalling an 1871 campaign against the Comanche tribe. Hill attributed the origin of the name to the Comanche due to Grierson's assertions. There is some controversy as to where the name originated. Some sources assert that the nickname was given out of respect for the fierce fighting ability of the 10th cavalry. Other sources assert that Native Americans called the black cavalry troops "buffalo soldiers" because of their dark curly hair, which resembled a buffalo's coat. Still other sources point to a combination of both legends. The term Buffalo Soldiers became a generic term for all African-American soldiers. It is now used for U.S. Army units that trace their direct lineage back to the 9th and 10th Cavalry, units whose bravery earned them an honored place in U.S. history.
During the American Civil War, the U.S. government formed regiments known as the United States Colored Troops, composed of black soldiers led by white officers. After the war, Congress reorganized the Army and authorized the formation of two regiments of black cavalry with the designations 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry, and four regiments of black infantry, designated the 38th, 39th, 40th and 41st Infantry Regiments (Colored). The 38th and 41st were reorganized as the 25th Infantry Regiment, with headquarters in Jackson Barracks in New Orleans, Louisiana, in November 1869. The 39th and 40th were reorganized as the 24th Infantry Regiment, with headquarters at Fort Clark, Texas, in April 1869. All of these units were composed of black enlisted men commanded by white officers such as Benjamin Grierson and Ranald S. Mackenzie and, occasionally, black officers such as Henry O. Flipper.
From 1866 to the early 1890s, these regiments served at a variety of posts in the Southwestern United States (Apache Wars) and Great Plains regions. They participated in most of the military campaigns in these areas and earned a distinguished record. Thirteen enlisted men and six officers from these four regiments earned the Medal of Honor during the Indian Wars. In addition to the military campaigns, the "Buffalo Soldiers" served a variety of roles along the frontier from building roads to escorting the U.S. mail.
After the Indian Wars ended in the 1890s, the regiments continued to serve and participated in the Spanish-American War (including the Battle of San Juan Hill), where five more Medals of Honor were earned. They took part in the 1916 Punitive Expedition into Mexico and in the Philippine-American War.
A lesser known action was the 9th Cavalry's participation in the fabled Johnson County War, an 1892 land war in Johnson County, Wyoming between small farmers and large, wealthy ranchers. It culminated in a lengthy shootout between local farmers, a band of hired killers, and a sheriff's posse. The 6th Cavalry was ordered in by President Benjamin Harrison to quell the violence and capture the band of hired killers. Soon afterward, however, the 9th Cavalry was specifically called on to replace the 6th. The 6th Cavalry was swaying under the local political and social pressures and were unable to keep the peace in the tense environment.
The Buffalo Soldiers responded within about two weeks from Nebraska, and moved the men to the rail town of Suggs, Wyoming, creating "Camp Bettens" despite a racist and hostile local population. One soldier was killed and two wounded in gun battles with locals. Nevertheless, the 9th Cavalry remained in Wyoming for nearly a year to quell tensions in the area.
ORGANIZATION
Of the 178,892 African-Americans who served in the US Army during the American Civil War, 32,369, or more than a sixth of their number, died in uniform. In recognition of the contribution these 'men of color' made to the Union victory, an Act of Congress, dated July 28, 1866, authorized the creation of six black regular army regiments as part of the additions to the 'military peace establishment of the United States.' General Philip Sheridan, commander of the Department of the Gulf, was authorized to raise the 9th Cavalry. A recruiting office was in New Orleans, Louisiana, and later that year, a second office was opened in Louisville, Kentucky. This regiment was placed under Colonel Edward Hatch, who had commanded a division of Union during the Civil War and played a decisive role in the Union victory at Nashville in December 1864.
The organization of the 10th Cavalry was begun on September 1, 1866, at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and Benjamin H. Grierson was awarded the colonelcy of this regiment. A commander of Illinois cavalry in Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mississippi during the Civil War, Grierson earned a reputation as a fearlessly efficient officer when he led a 600-mile mounted raid into Rebel territory in 1863. The 10th Cavalry took over a year to organize, but by July 1867 eight companies of enlisted men had been recruited within the Departments of Missouri. Arkansas, and the Platte.
These black cavalry regiments were organized on the general plan of white units, with the exception of one important feature. Each had a white regimental chaplain attached, whose duty included the instruction of the black enlisted men in reading and writing. Until that time, army chaplains were not assigned to specific regiments. Furthermore, both the 9th and the 10th Cavalry were designated two veterinary surgeons each, whereas the white cavalry regiments had only one.
Regarding the foot soldiers, the 38th Infantry, commanded by Colonel William B. Hazen, was assembled at Jefferson Barrack, Missouri during 1866 and marched across the plains to New Mexico. The 39th Infantry, under Colonel Joseph A. Mower, began recruiting at Alexandria, Louisiana. The 40th Infantry, under Colonel Nelson A. Miles, was organized in Washington D.C.. while recruits were gathered for the 41st Infantry in Louisiana, Alabama, and Ohio.
As part of the consolidation of the army via General Orders No. 16, the reorganization of the four black infantry regiments began on March 10, 1869. The 39th Infantry, based in North Carolina, proceeded to New Orleans where it was amalgamated with the 40th Infantry to become the 25th Infantry. under the command of Colonel Mower, with headquarters at Jackson Barracks. On June 8, 1870. this regiment was assigned to posts throughout the Texas frontier. Meanwhile, the 38th Infantry was transferred to Fort McKavitt, Texas, where it was consolidated with the 41st Infantry to become the 24th Infantry, under Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie. The 24th Infantry was to serve continuously in the heat and hostility of the Texas frontier until 1888, longer than any other infantry regiment of the army.
Enlistment
The period of enlistment for cavalry was five years, while the infantry served three years, with recruits for all regiments receiving thirteen dollars a month, plus 'room, board, and clothing. Many of those who joined these new units had served in all-black regiments during the Civil War. Others were newly freed slaves or free blacks from the North. Almost 40 percent of those recruited into the 9th Cavalry had prior military service, mainly with the 116th US Colored Troops, stationed at Ringgold Barracks, Texas, in 1865. Although farmers and laborers constituted most of the remainder, about 10 percent were artisans or domestic servants. Recruiting officers of the 10th Cavalry were instructed to enlist "colored men sufficiently educated to fill the positions of noncommissioned officers, clerks and mechanics,” plus other "superior men" who would be a "credit to the regiment.”
Regarding the original white officers appointed to the black regiments, all were required to have experienced two years active field service in the Civil War with the rank of captain or above. Two-thirds of these were drawn from the volunteer regiments, while the remaining third were expected to have seen regular army service. Appointment to a black regiment was not popular, despite possibilities for greater rank and more rapid promotion.
The need for replacements for the black regiments was constant throughout the frontier wars, especially with such a short term of service in the infantry regiments. Some of the reorganized companies of the 24th Infantry were almost non-existent by 1870. According to a report in the Army and Navy Journal, Company E, stationed at Fort Griffin, Texas, lost by expiration of service 26 men in January and February, 29 men in March and April, and 33 men in April, leaving on June 1, 1870, 'but one man in the company.' By October of that year, the unit was the smallest infantry regiment in the army, with only 431 officers and men on its roster. The 25th Infantry was not much better off with a complement of 482. At the same time, a concerted effort was made to replenish the ranks of the cavalry regiments. The same journal reported that all 'disposable colored cavalry recruits' were being collected at the Carlisle Barracks in Pennsylvania, and at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, to be sent to the 9th and 10th Cavalry.
Black Officers
Although army regulations did not prevent the commissioning of black officers or the promotion of black NCOs as commissioned officers, not a single African-American rose through the ranks of the buffalo soldiers to hold such a rank between 1866 and 1895. Between the years 1870 and 1889 only 22 blacks received appointments to the US Military Academy at West Point. Twelve of these managed to pass the entrance examination but only three succeeded in surviving four years of discrimination and social ostracism to graduate from the academy. Henry O. Flipper, John H. Alexander and Charles H. Young graduated in 1877, 1887, and 1889 respectively.
Henry Flipper was assigned to the 10th Cavalry at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where he supervised the construction of a drainage system that prevented the spread of malaria at the post. 'Flipper's Ditch' is a national historic landmark today. Fighting in the Warm Springs Apache campaign in 1880, he commanded the couriers who brought word of the renegade Victorio's arrival at Eagle Springs, Texas, from Mexico, riding 98 miles in 22 hours.
As well as fighting Apaches, Flipper went on to serve as a signal officer and quartermaster at several other posts, before being wrongfully accused of embezzling money from commissary funds while serving as Acting Commissary of Subsistence at Fort Davis, Texas, in 1881. He denied the charge, claiming that he had been set up by his fellow officers, who hated him because he was black. A court-martial found him not guilty of embezzlement, but convicted him of conduct unbecoming an officer. Thus he was dismissed from the army and spent many years trying unsuccessfully to clear his name. Henry Flipper died without vindication in 1940, but in 1976 the US Army granted him an honorable discharge, following which a review board stated that he had been singled out because of his race. President Bill Clinton issued him a full pardon in 1999.
Both Alexander and Young were assigned to the 9th Cavalry. The former was attached to Troop M, stationed at Fort Washakie, Wyoming, in March 1888, and subsequently served in Nebraska and Dakota Territory. He was detailed as professor at the Department of Military-Science and Tactics at Wilberforce University, in Xenia, Ohio. This institute became the first black college authorized to grant commissions to college students. Lieutenant Alexander continued to serve in this position until his death from a heart attack in March 1894.
Charles Young graduated from West Point in 1889 and remained on active duty for 33 years. He became the highest-ranking black officer during World War One, and the first black officer to hold the rank of colonel. His service included assignments as Military Attache to Haiti and Liberia. He was the second officer to hold the position of Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Wilberforce University. His command and staff assignments had carried him to Haiti, the Philippines, and the Republic of Liberia. In January 1922 Colonel Young died. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Discrimination
Inevitably, the black regulars were the victims of racial prejudice and discrimination. In 1867 a dispute developed between Colonel Grierson and Colonel William Hoffman, the commanding officer at Fort Leavenworth, when the 10th Cavalry was ordered to establish camp in a swampy area about one mile south of the permanent barracks. These two officers subsequently engaged in a heated argument on the parade ground in front of the assembled command when Hoffman ordered Grierson not to form his men too close to the white troops. As a result, Grierson completed his regimental organization at Leavenworth as quickly as possible and sent his companies on to Fort Riley for further training.
Worse still were the disputes that sometimes occurred among the enlisted men. On January 20, 1869, a 'small row' broke out at Fort Wallace, Kansas, between the troopers of the 10th Cavalry and the white soldiers of the 5th Infantry. This resulted in 'three colored men being placed hors de combat.' According to a rather unsympathetic correspondent at the post, 'One was wounded in the left arm, which was amputated by Dr. Fitz Gerald in artistic style. The other two were wounded in the legs, and it is a question whether they do not lose a leg apiece.'
The buffalo soldiers were also wrongly accused of spreading disease. During the summer of 1866, a medical officer at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri began an unfounded rumor that recruits of the 38th Infantry, being raised at that post, were responsible for beginning 'a most disastrous outbreak of cholera on the high, dry plains of western Kansas.' In fact, the Barracks was stricken nearly one month after the occasions in 1878 and 1879 the soldiers demonstrated their willingness to retaliate by shooting up town saloons and business premises where they had been threatened or refused service. The worst incident occurred following the murder of Private William Watkins by a white sheep rancher in 1881. When news reached the fort, about 70 soldiers, black and white, converged on the town. According to the report of Colonel Grierson, 'A good many shots were fired in the vicinity of the Hotel, but fortunately only one person [was] slightly wounded.'
In the face of common adversity, the white troops developed a great respect for the buffalo soldiers towards the end of the Indian Wars. In April 1891, a member of the garrison at Fort Custer, in Montana, wrote, 'The colored troops of the 25th Infantry ... get along extremely well with their white comrades of the 1st Cavalry, and the color line is exceedingly dim. So may it ever be. Men who wear the same uniform, eat the same rations, draw the same pay and fight for the same country, can ill afford to let the color of the skin form the cause of estrangement.'
A female buffalo soldier
In the absence of a thorough physical examination, Cathay Williams, the only black female to become a buffalo soldier, enlisted in Company A, 38th Infantry, on November 15, 1867. Born into slavery near Independence, Missouri, Williams was freed by Union forces during the Civil War, and served as a cook and laundress for the 8th Indiana Infantry from 1862 until the end of the conflict. Being tall and powerfully built, and calling herself 'William Cathay,' she easily fooled the recruiting officer of the 38th Infantry, who was anxious to secure volunteers to fill the ranks of his regiment. Her company arrived at Fort Cummings, New Mexico, on October 1,1867, and for the next two years she helped protect miners and immigrants from Indian attack. When interviewed later in life, she recalled, 'I carried my musket and did guard and other duties while in the army, but finally I got tired and wanted to get off. I played sick, complained of pains in my side, and rheumatism in my knees. The post surgeon found out I was a woman and I got my discharge.' She finally left the army on October 14, 1868.
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